Application of social learning theory in psychology research Essay Example for Free

Application of social learning theory in psychology research Essay ‘Explaining substance use among Puerto Rican adolescents: a partial test of social learning theory’ is an article by Holly Ventura Miller, Wesley G. Jennings, Lorna L. Alverez-Rivera and J. Mitchell Miller. The article is a 2008 publication in the Journal of Drug Issues Volume 38, issue number 1. In this study, Miller et al (2008) seek to use social learning theory to understand substance use among Puerto Rican adolescents as part of the larger Hispanic group. The importance of social learning is assessed through finding out the effect of differences in an individual’s description of substance use as compared to the description that peers have. This study is based on the view that most adolescents who have friends who are in substance abuse also become substance abusers. Perceptions about drug abuse also seem to be similar with those held by the peers. Social interactions of the youths therefore seem to play a big role in learned behavior and perceptions. Miller et al (2008) have reviewed considerable literature on social learning theory more so the aspect of differential association in acquisition of socially unacceptable behavior. A cross-cultural application of social learning theory forms the center of this study where a group (288 youths) of Puerto Rican adolescents is chosen as the study sample. This study specifically focuses on how peer and personal perception of substance use influence alcohol, cigarette and marijuana use. The survey-type of study was carried among school going youths aged 14-19 years in San Juan, Puerto Rico. The subjects were selected from public and private schools with the sample size from public schools being considerably higher compared to that from private schools (69% versus 31%). The survey was conducted using questionnaires where several variables were assessed. Questionnaires administered in public schools were written in English whereas those issued in public schools were in Hispanic. The study excluded subjects who did not report being Hispanic since ethnicity was a very crucial variable. The adolescents were assessed of their behaviors as regards to alcohol abuse, cigarette smoking and marijuana use. Predictor variables were social learning (definitions on substance abuse) and sex. The control variables in this study were age and belonging to single-parent family. After statistical analyses (logistic regression analyses), it was found out that youths in private schools had a greater lifetime substance use and reported peer influence in the use of the three substances. In addition, males were likely to be involved in use of the three substances under study as opposed to females in both types of schools. In private schools, a significant difference in substance use was noted to exist between males and females. It is also notable that cigarette use among females in public schools was influenced by their views of smoking cigarettes as a favorable behavior. This was also the case with private school males. Personal definitions were also found to play a big role in alcohol consumption. Marijuana use was mainly due to the influence of peers’ definition as opposed to personal definition. Miller et al (2008) therefore concluded that if personal definitions of substance use are favorable, the likelihood of substance abuse is high. Peer definitions are also significantly important determinants of substance abuse as evidenced by marijuana use among Puerto Rican adolescents. Sex is also a determinant factor in influencing substance use. Article 2 The article ‘social learning, self control, and substance abuse by eight grade students: at tale of two cities’ by L. Thomas Winfree Jr. and Frances P. Bernat is a 1998 publication in the Journal of Drug Issue volume 28, issue number 2. In this study, Winfree and Bernat (1998) examine the effectiveness of the social cognitive theory and self control theory in predicting level of substance abuse among a group of eight graders in a large versus a small city. Among the substances the substances that the eight grade students are assessed of include alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana among others. This sample is selected from Phoenix, Arizona and Las Cruces, N. M. the cities are choice for this study due to differences in types of crimes thus the authors of this study challenge that the two theories cannot be used to predict substance abuse among the two groups of youths. Winfree and Bernat (2008) argue that the social learning theory is viewed as being able to predict how people develop delinquent behaviors, as well as the environment that is likely to predispose one to delinquent behaviors. As such, it is viewed that substance abuse by youths can be predicted by the social learning theory as long as the social environment of the youth is well understood. On the other hand, Winfree and Bernat (1998) argue that the self control theory indicates that the level of self control determines human behavior especially in consideration of factors such as self interest and tendency to seek pleasure and not pain. In their study, Winfree and Bernet (1998) carried out a wide cross-sectional study in 11 localities including Phoenix and Las Cruces. The subjects who participated in this study gave an informed consent through either parents or guardians. Data was collected through the use of questionnaires and the surveyors helped the students in understanding the questions thus improving accuracy of data collected. Dependent variables in this study were use of different substances within the past one year. Social learning independent variables included neutralization, guilt, positive reinforcement and negative pushers. Self control independent variables included parental monitoring, impulsivity and risk-taking. After performing regression analyses, it was evident that there was a low level of substance abuse among Phoenix students who said that they would feel very guilty if their engaged in substance abuse. Higher levels of substance abuse in Phoenix sample was identified among students who agreed greatly to neutralizing statements about negativity of crime. In terms of self control, there was higher substance use among students who reported higher risk taking tendencies. However, parental control and impulsivity did not provide enough data for evaluation. In Las Cruces, it was observed that youths who had seen gangsters and viewed gangsters as having better lifestyles were likely to abuse substances. The same happened with neutralization of negativity of crime. Guilt was not a big determinant of substance abuse in Las Cruces. Conclusively, Winfree and Bernet argue that social learning theory and self control theory can be used to evaluate delinquency in adolescents. From the above two articles, social learning theory emerges as an important tool for predicting substance abuse. Counselors stand to benefit from the understanding of the application of social learning theory in this context since they can be able to associate a certain substance abuse problem to the social influences of the client. By identifying the source of the substance abuse problem using the social learning theory, the counselor is able to provide a way out of the delinquency or substance use. This would include subjecting favorable social environment and statements such that the substance abuse behavior is taken as a negative rather than a positive thing. It would also be helpful for the counselor to suggest a geographical relocation (e. g. school transfer) as an important way of creating the best environment (drug/crime-free environment) for adolescents. References Miller, H. V. , Jennings, W. G. , Alverez-Rivera, L. L. and Miller, J. M. (2008). â€Å"Explaining substance use among Puerto Rican adolescents: a partial test of social learning theory. † Journal of Drug Issues 38(1): 261+. Web. 15, July 2010. Questia. com. Winfree, L. T. and Bernat, F. T. (1998). â€Å"Social learning, self control, and substance abuse by eight grade students: at tale of two cities. † Journal of Drug Issue, 28(2): 539+. Web. 15, July 2010. Questia. com.

Shakespeares presentation of the characters of Hal and Hotspur in Henry IV Essay Example for Free

Shakespeares presentation of the characters of Hal and Hotspur in Henry IV Essay Compare Shakespeares presentation of the characters of Hal and Hotspur in Henry IV Part 1 The two main characters in Henry IV Part 1 are named Hal and Hotspur. They are two very contrasting characters. Hal (actual name Henry Bolingbrook) is the son of the king, Henry IV. Hotspur (Harry Percy) is the son of Lord Northumberland. His family is very wealthy and powerful, and at the start of the play they are fighting for the King because they are good friends with him. Things soon turn sour though, when the short-tempered Hotspur, egged on by his scheming uncle, Lord Worcester, falls out with the King and vows to get revenge on him. This essay describes the numerous differences between the two young men. In his fathers eyes, Hal mixes with the wrong sort of people, and this is probably true. He spends a lot of his time with thieves like Gadshill, liars like Falstaff, and drunkards like Bardolph. The King is very disappointed with the way his son behaves, and he makes this clear right at the beginning of the play. Whilst I by looking on the praise of him [HOTSPUR] see riot and dishonour stain the brow of my young Harry he confides in Westmoreland. He even goes as far as wishing that Hotspur was his son instead of Hal! Oh that it could be proved that some night-tripping fairy had exchangedour children where they lay. Hotspur is an aggressive, short-tempered character. He always says what he thinks, no matter who is around, and this characteristic tends often to get him into hot water. He forbad my tongue to speak of Mortimer, but I will find him when he lies asleep and in his ear Ill holla Mortimer! he says in one of his many rants about the King. Hal is almost the exact opposite of Hotspur in this respect, he is very laid-back, and keeps his thoughts to himself rather than blurting them out like Hotspur. When asked if he was afraid of Glendower and the rebels, he replies nonchalantly Not a whit ifaith, showing his relaxed manner. Hal is not as flippant with his remarks as Hotspur. He keeps himself to himself. This is made clear to the audience when he reveals in an aside that his mixing with disreputable people is a scheming plan to eventually glorify himself when he turns over a new leaf. He reveals this quite late in the play, which is done on purpose to show that he has been keeping it to himself for quite a while, giving the audience the impression that he is a scheming and calculating person. Hotspur is obsessed with war and politics, whereas at the start of the play it seems like Hal couldnt care less. I love thee not; I care not for thee Kate when I am a-horseback I will swear that I love thee infinitely says Hotspur, who we know loves Kate very much, but when there is a battle approaching he doesnt care about anything else. Although at the start of the play Hal seems disinterested in war and politics, it later emerges that he is almost as fanatical about it as Hotspur. Hal, when he insults people, does it behind their back, and is much more subtle than Hotspur. In Act 2 Scene 4 Hal has a dig at Hotspur while laughing and joking in the tavern, whereas Hotspur criticises the King while he is just meters away from him in Act 1 Scene 3. He forbad my tongue to speak of Mortimer, but I will find him when he lies asleep and in his ear Ill holla Mortimer! he rants. Hotspur often mentions Gods name in his speeches. And God defend but still I should stand so he says at one point in the play, and Welcome, Sir Walter Blunt; and would to God you were of our determination! he says at another time. Frequent mention of Gods name was an important part of public rhetoric, in contrast to todays society where faith in God is no longer an essential part of the political or judicial process. Harry does not mention God as often, perhaps hinting at either a lack of faith or a lack of knowledge and experience of rhetoric. This comparison demonstrates how Hal has much to learn about being a successful speaker, and in a broader sense about life as a noble in general, whereas Hotspur seems to have already picked the idea up. Hotspur is very disorganised, and doesnt plan ahead. He thinks on the spot, and has a tendency to let himself down as he sometimes makes poor decisions when he is under pressure. A plague upon it! I have forgot the map he exclaims, when the whole point of the meeting he was attending was to use the map to divide up land. Hal is more of a forward-thinker, as proved with his long-term plan to make people disapprove of him and then to change his ways in the future. Hal controls events himself, whereas Hotspur lets his temper control events, and lets himself be egged on by crafty people like his uncle Worcester. An example of how easy Hotspur is to manipulate is the way he is subtly encouraged by Worcester to fall out with the king. Hotspur uses lots of expletives and exclamations, whereas Hal uses much more relaxed language most of the time. A two-faced side of Hostpur emerges in Act 4 Scene 3, where he acts very warmly towards the enemys messenger. Welcome, Sir Walter Blunt some of us love you well, and even those some envy your great deservings and good name. he says. Hal is also two-faced in a way, because he mixes with dishonourable people even though he doesnt even want to. Of course he pretends to want to when he is around them. Both Hal and Hotspur are admired by people on the opposite sides to them. In Act 4 Scene 1 Vernon compares Hal to the Gods, using lots of philosophical metaphors, much to Hotspurs displeasure. Rise from the ground like feathered Mercury he proclaims in a description of Hal. The King shows his respect for Hotspur as well by calling him Mars in swaddling clothes. They are both respected by their enemies, and both seem to be unappreciated by their own sides. So as you can see, although Hal and Hotspur at first seem like very contrasting characters, as the play progresses you begin to notice more and more similarities between them.

Effectiveness Impact of Journal Clubs in Medicine

Effectiveness Impact of Journal Clubs in Medicine Abstract Background: Journal clubs` emerging goals are now considered to be teaching critical appraisal skills and learning how to use evidence based medicine in practice. Although journal clubs are well accredited, designing the right format to keep members stimulated and educated remains a great challenge. Methods: We conducted journal club structure modifications in internal medicine residency program of a university affiliated hospital. Initially group-based sessions identified feasible changes and baseline data concerning residents` knowledge of evidence based medicine (EBM) was collected by a questionnaire. Modifications implemented and a second set of group discussions and data collection took place after 12 months. Results: Total number of 78 residents participated. The most important identified changes were schedule adjustments and setting new goals regarding EBM, medical statistics and critical appraisal teaching. Group discussion showed increased satisfaction and questionnaire assessments showed significant improvement in residents` knowledge of EBM. Conclusions: Redesigning journal clubs with emphasis on regularity and setting new horizons basically improves their effectiveness. Assigning entire sessions to augment participants` skills in new areas of knowledge is a unique way to fit journal clubs as a novel and innovative teaching practice. Practice Points Journal clubs are connecting bridges between knowledge and practice. Journal clubs have gradually evolved to be a teaching tool in modern medicine. Considering growing popularity of evidence based medicine, journal clubs can be a way to introduce this discipline into educational programs. Redesigning old journal club structure is somehow necessary to better keep up with growing knowledge of medicine. Furnishing journal clubs with innovative methods might be a reasonable way of reform. Introduction The earliest reference to the origin of the phrase journal club is in memoirs and letters of Sir James Paget, describing a small room near St. Bartholomews Hospital in London in the period 1835-1854 in which pupils met and read journals (Paget 1901). More than a century has passed since Sir William Osler started the first recorded journal club in North America in 1875 as a way of sharing periodicals he could not afford individually and later established a club at Johns Hopkins University to review the latest medical research (Alguire 1998; Sleeman 1990). Today’s journal clubs have evolved a great deal and are found in nearly every medical school and residency training program in almost all fields of medicine (Valentini Daniels 1997; Sidorov 1995; Green 1999). Traditionally journal clubs are educational meetings in which a group of individuals meet to discuss and critically evaluate the current articles in the scientific literature (Mcleod et al. 2010; SVN Research Committee 2009). The major aim of journal clubs was to keep their attendees up to date with the latest medical literature (Valentini Daniels 1997; Forsen 2003; Goodfellow 2004). Gradually they have become a means for teaching critical appraisal skills, improving biostatistical knowledge, getting familiar with epidemiologic methods and most recently promoting the practice of Evidence Based Medicine (EBM) (Valentini Daniels 1997; SVN Research Committee 2009; Woods Winkel 1982). Critical appraisal skills and basing clinical decisions on the best published evidence available (i.e. EBM) have become an important facet in clinical medicine and are part of core general competencies required by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) in all residency programs (ACGME 2009; Yew Reid 2008; Carpenter et al. 2010). In the ensuing years, EBM has enjoyed widespread popularity. Today’s journal clubs are effectively assisting practitioners translate knowledge into practice and serve as an excellent bridge between research and clinical work. While journal club has been a mainstay in postgraduate medical education for many years, several authors have pointed out the diversity of its format (Alguire 1998; Sidorov 1995; Ebbert et al. 2001). The desirability of journal clubs in internal medicine has been reinforced by accreditation requirements that mandate residents` participation in journal clubs. Although the goals and purposes of journal clubs are well established, selecting the right format and setting to keep members stimulated and educated remains a great challenge (Kelly Cronin 2010; Hartzell et al. 2009). With the growing appreciation of evidence based medicine (EBM) and its widespread application in clinical decision making, we thought of revising and implementing possible modifications in our journal club structure to improve quality of sessions and weigh their effects on our journal club program. Methods We conducted revision program into our journal club structure involving internal medicine residents attending the internal medicine residency program in a teaching university affiliated hospital. The modification process consisted of several steps. First we conducted group-based discussion sessions with participation of two clinical experts, two research experts, the program manager and chief resident. Group discussion primarily consisted of brain storming, reviewing similar works and their outcomes and sharing experiences. Five such meetings were held with main purpose of gauging current program features and identifying possible essential changes required to improve the program. Findings of these sessions then were shared with residents` delegates, 2 residents from each year, through three separate sessions. Identified feasible modifications were finally determined out of group-based discussions and implemented to make a new journal club structure. The group-based discussion took place for the second time, 12 months after executing alterations. Group participants were the same. This time the group assessed different aspects of changes made including residents` attendance, residents` satisfaction and the content of new sessions. Furthermore we measured the residents` existing knowledge of EBM by a self-reported questionnaire, designed and internally validated by the discussion group. The questionnaire consisted of three questions to assess three fields: residents` knowledge of statistical significance, their acquaintance with evidence rating and their familiarity with study design. Possible answers were as â€Å"No familiarity†, â€Å"Fair familiarity†, â€Å"Good familiarity† and â€Å"Excellent familiarity†. In order to facilitate further comparison, the first two answers were classified as cluster 1 (limited knowledge) and the two remaining answers as cluster 2 (acceptable knowledge); therefore making comparison between two clusters. Each resident was given the questionnaire before applying changes and again 12 months after running the new program. Residents` responses were also discussed in the second set of group discussion. The results were collected anonymously and data was then imported to Excel software (2010, Microsoft) for examination. We specified the distribution of answers in each cluster before and after modifications and calculated the absolute difference between them using descriptive statistics. Results Seventy-eight internal medicine residents (43 Female, 35 Male) were included into the survey. An almost even participation was observed among residents from all years of internal medicine training. Results of this study can be divided into two phases; before applying changes and after implementing modifications. Phase I Founded on the primary group-based discussions, the acknowledged key points for developing our new journal club structure encompassed program and schedule modification, adding motives, defining new goals, content revision and implementing feedback mechanisms from which, content revision was considered the most critical one. The main aspects of modifications made are explained in details. Our new schedule was designed as weekly sessions on Thursdays (the day before weekend in our country). We planned the sessions to be held from 7 to 8 in the morning (Breakfast time) and on the day with minimal educational and clinical workload to assure maximal attendance. To ensure the regularity and predictability of our program, we already scheduled the sessions for the next entire year. Holidays, exam days and residents` rotations were carefully noticed in planning the journal club calendar and the presenter for each session was specified at the beginning of the educational year. Furthermore we changed the place to a bigger room with better facilities. Also we decided to provide a mini breakfast meal during all sessions as a potential incentive that can increase participants` interest. Defining new objectives was also emphasized by group members. Therefore, we set our new goals not only to keep updated with medical literature and review the current literature, but also to introduce medical statistics to residents, encourage arguments and develop critical appraisal skills and understanding EBM. We changed the composition of our journal club participants to include relevant attending physicians, medical statisticians and experts in EBM and critical thinking as well as internal medicine residents from all levels. In order to achieve the broad goal spectrum, our reformed program consisted of two different types of sessions. Three sessions of each month were dedicated to presenting review articles and discussion about the main topic (analogous with former program). The last week of the month was devoted to evidence based journal clubs in which an original article was presented to the audience and 2 to 3 relevant articles or guidelines were also considered. The main focus of these sessions was to discuss the methodology and to point out statistical points through which critical appraisal skills were practiced and evaluation of the quality and validity of the results taught. Both types of sessions were moderated by an attending physician with experience in medical research and education background. Review article journal clubs were presented by a second year internal medicine resident employing slideshows; hence each resident was provided the opportunity to benefit from this chance at least twice a year. Evidence based journal clubs were presented by senior residents familiar with medical research and statistics and with acceptable teaching skills. These sessions were supervised by a team (at least 2 persons) of expert physicians in EBM and critical thinking skill. A support committee consisting of two senior internal medicine residents, journal club moderator and an EBM expert was formed for evaluating and choosing articles for presentation. The responsible resident had to provide up to 5 papers to the committee, who would then return one or two of them for presentation. The major selection criteria were relevancy and novelty of the topic and being in accordance with the interests of the participants. The other thing considered especially for articles to be presented in EBM sessions was being somehow controversial regarding the methodology or conclusion. At the end of each session a brief explanation was provided including critical points and a conclusion. For EBM sessions the strength and limitations of the article were also emphasized, inspiring the participants to involve in this process valuable in didactic endeavors. The conclusion of each session was then uploaded in the departmental forum of residents and interns for more discussion. Sometimes, a practical question was also provided in order to ascertain that residents have got the point correctly. Phase II Second phase results are described after 12 months of running the new program. Group-based discussion findings for new schedule clearly showed increased attendance and residents were more satisfied with the fixed and pre-defined sessions. Nonetheless we noticed that providing food was not of residents` concerns. Definition of new objectives for journal club sessions persuaded residents to participate more. Experts in the group-based discussions were also satisfied with the new content of sessions and monthly devoting an entire session to EBM and teaching statistical points and critical thinking. Regarding questionnaire assessment, final results showed that in the field of â€Å"evidence rating knowledge†, the number of residents in cluster 1 reduced from 51 to 17 and accordingly the number of residents in cluster 2 increased from 27 to 61 (43.6% absolute change regarding the total number of participants; P Similarly, before-after comparison for the field of â€Å"statistical significance acquaintance† revealed the absolute change to be 23.1%; i.e. the residents` acquaintance with concept of statistical significance was noticeably augmented, changing from limited knowledge to acceptable knowledge, in 18 residents (P Discussion Our conventional journal club structure first started in internal medicine department of Shariati hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences in year 2007. Since then it was running in a small room and on a weekly basis with focus on review article presentation only. Participants were mainly residents, internal medicine interns and medical students and presenters of sessions were selected from first year residents. There are considerable studies describing journal clubs conducted in different settings and for different health providers; yet there appear to be no ‘Gold Standard’ approach for conducting a journal club or assessing its effectiveness. It is therefore an ongoing challenge in designing effective journal club format that assists the participants to translate journal club activities into evidence based practice (Deenadayalan et al. 2008). As residency programs deal with work hour restrictions and implement competency educations (Hatala et al. 2006; Goroll et al. 2004), they need to undergo intense reassessment and possible remodeling to determine if they are meeting their goals. Our questionnaire survey showed that our reformed program made significant change in residents` knowledge and the number of residents significantly shifted from low knowledge to acceptable knowledge. We postulated that holding journal clubs on a regular basis is necessary to achieve continuous educational progress and gradually obtain the desired improvement in residents` competency which is in accordance to most previous studies (Deenadayalan et al. 2008 ). Regularity of sessions basically show the importance of this type of learning, as a new method of education is being introduced to the learners (residents). On the other hand, disorderliness might suggest that the program is not so useful and coordinators are not sure of its value, which in turn will dissuade participants from joining and following the schedule. Pre-defining the whole schedule would be a great way in achieving this goal. Although fixed schedule might seems impractical for many institutes but authors assumed that accurately considering some fine points such as work hour’s prerequisites before scheduling the program may be helpful. In addition, this would assist participants to adjust their time and for presenter to know their schedule and being prepared for that. Regarding best frequency, according to most of studies reporting this, it seems that monthly period is endorsed (Letterie Morgenstern 2000; Burstein et al. 1996). Our reformed structure had a weekly basis, though our new EBM sessions were held monthly, not to shrink residents` enthusiasm for participating in these educational gatherings. Some studies have shown that timing of journal clubs might be of importance considering attendance, especially when they were coincided with meal times (Bazarian et al. 1999; Langkamp et al. 1992). While they advised provision of food as a way to increase attendance, our group-based discussions and residents feedbacks did not show such relation. This might be due to . Authors believed that forward movement without adding new goals and/or lacking enough motivation would not be successful in improving participants` competency. Increasing knowledge of medical statistics and understanding EBM were the primary new objectives of our program which is demonstrated to be well achieved regarding our survey. Participants of journal clubs must be in accordance to the aims and contents of the program. Similar to Hartzell (2009), authors think that inviting attending physicians and involving senior residents may contribute to fulfillment of journal club objectives. This composition would facilitate the arguments and give space for better discussion and reaching a practical point. Assigning an entire separate session to introduction of this new area would also be of great benefit, since innovative thinking and learning new skills necessitates more time. New educational goals for residency programs now include conduction of problem oriented sessions, evidence based journal clubs and also experiencing critical appraisal. Considering that almost all of medical education programs have introduced journal clubs as a routine in their curricula, we thought of it as a useful tool to familiarize our residents with better interpreting medical literature, critical thinking and evidence based medicine. This approach has been supported by previous researches (Hatala et al. 2006; Ghali et al. 2000). Although this survey showed promising results and improvement in residents` knowledge and participation, our results are far from perfect. Yet we must increase our efforts to recognize subtle obstacles and further improve effectiveness of journal club. Conclusion In conclusion, journal clubs are of great value in today`s medical education addressing both clinical practice and evidence based learning improvement. Yet there is no gold standard to achieve the best result with this regard. We have enjoyed revolutionizing our traditional structure of journal clubs and furnishing it with novel objectives and construction and noticed significant improvement in attendance and competency of our internal medicine residents. Declaration of interest The authors report no declarations of interest.

Patricia J. Williams Essay -- Patricia Williams Law Society Essays

Patricia J. Williams While most pundits of America's social and political discourse are either beating dead horses or tilting at windmills, Patricia J. Williams seeks out the racist, sexist, heterosexist, and classist forces that underlie a number of socio-political pathologies. Williams' regular Nation magazine column, "Diary of a Mad Law Professor" is curious in that it often evokes visceral negativity in casual readers. It certainly affected me that way. At first it was difficult to get beyond the name of her page; thumbing through each issue I sheepishly wondered what this crazy lady would get bent out of shape about this week. Though I generally agreed with her ideas, it struck me that Williams was too radical (as if there really is such a thing in a mainstream media culture that chooses to wear blinders). Williams vigorously uproots conventional wisdom as she strips away the "rich-white-male"-centric viewpoint; power and a voice are given to those who simply are acted upon. Like Howard Zinn who has promoted a view of history through a populist lens, Patricia Williams promotes a viewpoint that examines and judges the treatment of the marginalized. Williams is clearly not the only contemporary essayist with a broad-minded viewpoint on social issues. Katha Pollitt, E.L. Doctorow, Gore Vidal, and Alexander Cockburn, among many others, are similarly progressive in their opinions on society, politics, and culture. Williams, however, has a modified gestalt upon which her liberal commentary about socio-political affairs is based. The way in which the mechanics of society can be explained is a relationship of dominance and submission, a pornographic association. As described in "Clarence X", pornography, on a level greater ... ...aracterization like the Nutty Black Feminst Ultra-Liberal Professor. The key to accessing Williams is the key she teaches us for accessing a more equal society: a society in which pigeon holes are eliminated, since clearly, neither we nor Patricia Williams can be so categorized without losing our humanity. Works Cited Williams, Patricia J. The Alchemy of Race and Rights. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1991. "Clarence X," Rooster's Egg. 121-136. "Fire and Ice." Alchemy. 133-145. "A Hearing of One's Own." Rooster's Egg. 137-149. "Little House in the Hood." The Nation. 19 Jun 2000: 9. "Mirrors and Windows." Alchemy. 166-178. "The Pain of Word Bondage." Alchemy.146-165. "Racial Ventriloquism." The Nation. 5 Jul 1999: 9. "Radio Hoods." Rooster's Egg. 42-56. The Rooster's Egg. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1995. "Teleology on the Rocks." Alchemy. 55-79.

Sarah, the Evil Mistress Essay -- Essays Papers

Sarah, the Evil Mistress Although Hagar flaunts her pregnancy with Abraham in the face of Sarah who is barren, Sarah is ultimately responsible for generating trouble in Abraham’s household. Through Sarah’s decision to give Hagar to Abraham, Sarah’s jealousy and anger towards Hagar’s reaction to conception, and also Sarah’s harsh treatment of Hagar, we are able to understand why Sarah is truly the one accountable for the negative circumstances throughout her relationship with Hagar. Initially, in Genesis 11:30 we feel remorse for Sarai in her barrenness. Repeatedly it is expressed that Sarai is barren. Sharon Jeansonne explains, â€Å"Indeed, Sarai’s childlessness is predominant in most of the scenes that concern her† (15). Sarai’s inadequacy is stated repetitively because at this time, a woman was considered worthless if she could not conceive children and bear her husband offspring. Knowing the importance of progeny, Sarai attempts to fulfill her dreams of having a son for Abraham. Prior to informing the reader of Sarai’s plans, it is stated that she and Abram have lived in Canaan for ten years now without her giving him a child. She is now finally doing something about the issue (19). She decides that she should have a son through her maidservant Hagar. In Genesis 16:2 it reads, â€Å"And Sarai said to Abraham, ‘Look, the Lord has kept me from bearing. Consort with my maid; perhaps I shall have a son through her.’ An d Abram heeds Sarai’s request† (Berlin and Brettler). Through this verse it becomes unmistakable that the entire plan is Sarai’s and Abram simply obeys while Hagar is given no choice (Tikva Frymer-Kensky 226). The practice of having a maid give birth in place of another woman was common, yet it seems as though Sarai di... ...this through her initiative to have Hagar as a surrogate mother, her immediate jealousy, her harsh treatment of Hagar, her selfishness, and her continual dissatisfaction until Hagar and Ishmael were removed from her household once and for all. Works Cited - Berlin, Adele, and Brettler, Marc Zvi. The Jewish Study Bible. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. - Frymer-Kensky, Tikva. Reading the Women of the Bible. New York: Shocken Books, 2002. - Jeansonne, Sharon Pace. The Women of Genesis. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1990. - Rulon-Miller, Nina. â€Å"Hagar: A Woman with an Attitude.† The World of Genesis: Persons, Places, Perspectives. Ed. Philip R. Davies and David J. A. Clines. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998. - Wiesel, Elie. Wise Men and Their Tales. â€Å"Ishmael and Hagar.† New York: Random House Inc., 2003.

Time Value of Money and Present Value

Date: 14/11/2012 52. Annuities: You are saving for the college education of your two children. They are two years apart in age; one will begin college 15 years from today and the other will begin 17 years from today. You estimate your children’s college expenses to be $23,000 per year per child, payable at the beginning of each school year. The annual interest rate is 5. 5 percent. How much money must you deposit in account each year to fund your children’s education? Your deposits begin one year from today. You will make your last deposit when your oldest child enters college. Assume four years of collegeSolution: Cost of 1 year at university = 23,000 N=4 I=5. 5% PMT=23,000 CPT PV = 80,618. 45 For the first child the PV = 80,618. 45/ (1. 055) ^14 = $38,097. 81 For the second child the PV = 80,618. 45/ (1. 055) ^16 = $34,229. 07 Therefore the total cost today of your children’s college expense will be the addition of the 2 = $72,326. 88 This is the present value of my annual savings, which are an annuity, so to get the amount I am supposed to save each year would be: PV=72,326. 88 N=15 I=5. 5 CPT PMT = 7,205. 6 57. Calculating Annuity Values: Bilbo Baggins wants to save money to meet three objectives.First, he would like to be able to retire 30 years from now with retirement income of $25,000 per month for 20 years, with the first payment received 30 years and 1 month from now. Second, he would like to purchase a cabin in Rivendell in 10 years at an estimated cost of $350,000. Third, after he passes on at the end of the 20 years of withdrawals, he would like to leave an inheritance of $750,000 to his nephew Frodo. He can afford to save $2,100 per month for the next 10 years. If he can earn an 11 percent EAR before he retires and an 8 percent EAR after he retires, how much will he have to save each month in years 11 through 30? Solution:First we get the FV of the 2,100 savings over 10 years Bilbo Baggins can afford to save $2,100 dollars per month for the next 10 years therefore at 10 years he would have saved: PMT = 2,100 I = 10. 48 / 12 = 0. 873 N = 10 x 12 = 120 CPT FV = $442,201. 15 So after 10 years he would be able to purchase his yacht at the price of $350,000, and he would be left with a balance of $92,201. 15 This $92,201. 15 will be our current PV at year 10. At year 30, the year when Bilbo retires, the $92,201. 15 would become 92,201. 15*(1. 11) ^20 = $620,283. 23 Second we have to find out how much the inheritance of 750,000 would be at year 30: 750,000/1. 8^20= $160,911. 16 Third In order for him to be able to withdraw a sum of 25,000 per month for the next 20 years after his retirement, we should now calculate this annuity’s present value: N= 20 x 12 = 240 I= 7. 72 / 12 = 0. 643 PMT= 25,000 CPT PV = $3,052,135. 26 Adding up the PV’s of the $750,000 and the annuity, we will get $3,213,046. 32 We will subtract the future value at year 30 of the $92,201. 15 ($620,283. 23) which we saved at year 10 from $3,213,046. 32 to get $2,592,763. 09 We are now left with an annuity that pays $2,592,763. 09 at year 30, and a time period of 20 years (yr11-30) To calculate the yearly PMT, we haveFV= $2,592,763. 09 I= 10. 48 / 12 = 0. 873 N= 20 x 12 = 240 CPT PMT = 3,207. 33 Therefore the monthly PMT Bilbo would have to save each month through years 11-30 would be = $3,207. 33 34. Valuing bonds: Mallory Corporation has two different bonds, currently outstanding. Bond M has a face value of $20,000 and matures in twenty years. The bond makes no payments for the first six years, then pays $1,200 every 6 months over the subsequent eight years, and finally pays $1,500 every 6 months over the last years. Bond N also has a face value of $20,000 and a maturity of 20 years; it makes n coupon payments over the life of the bond.If the required return on both these bonds is 10% compounded semiannually, what is the current price of bond M? Of bond N? Solution: The price of a bond is equal to PV of ex pected future cash flows Bond M: Face value 20,000 Present value of 20,000 = 20,000/ (1. 05) ^40 = $2,840. 91 First we need to get the present value of the annuity for the 1,500 semiannual PMTs at year 14 Present Value of Annuity = $13,295 $13,295 becomes $3,391 at year 0 We then get the annuity of the 1,200 semiannual PMTs at year 6, and then at Present Value $13,005 at year 6 with a PV of $7,242 at year 0 The sum of the 3 PV’s gives us the value of the bond ,841 + 3,391 + 7,242 = $13,474 Bond N Face value 20,000 Present value of 20,000 = 20,000/ (1. 05) ^40 = $2,840. 91 38. Non-constant growth: Storico Co. just paid a dividend of aud 3. 5 per share. The company will increase its dividend by 20% next year, and will then reduce its dividend growth rate by 5% per year, until it reaches the industry average of 5% industry average growth, after which the company will keep a constant growth rate forever. If the required return on Storico stock is 13%, what will a share of stock s ell for today? Solution  : D0 = $3. 5 D1= 3. 5*1. 2= $4. 2 D2= 4. 2*1. 15= $4. 3 D3=4. 83*1. 1= $5. 31 D4=5. 31*1. 05= $5. 58 Since the first 4 periods are different we get the PV of each one alone, then as of the 4th year we get the perpetuity of the rest, and sum them up to get the final NPV We now get the PV of each Dividend PV D1 = 4. 2/ (1. 13) = $3. 72 PV D2 = 4. 83/ (1. 13) ^2 = $3. 78 PV D3 = 5. 31/ (1. 13) ^3 = $3. 68 So the PVs of D1+D2+D3 = $11. 18 NPV of perpetuity at constant growth = 5. 58(0. 08) / (1. 13) ^3 = 69. 75 / (1. 13) ^3 = $48. 34 NPV perpetuity + NPV dividends = NPV price of stock today 48. 34 + 11. 18 = $59. 52

Market research

The company/brand selected for the research proposal project Is Wall-Mart. INTRODUCTION Wall-Mart Stores, Inc. , branded as Wall-Mart, Is an American multinational retail corporation that runs chains of large discount department stores and warehouse stores. Headquartered In Bonneville, Arkansas, the company was founded by Sam Walton in 1962 and incorporated on October 31, 1969. It has over 11,000 stores in 27 countries, under a total 55 different names. It operates in India as Best Price.The company is the world's largest public corporation, the biggest private employer in the oral with over two million employees and the largest retailer in the world. Wall-Mart is a family-owned business, as the company Is controlled by the Walton family, who own over 50 percent of Wall-Mart through their holding company, Walton Enterprises. It is also one of the world's most valuable companies and is also the largest grocery retailer in the US. The partnership between Birth Enterprises and Wall-Mart has been dissolved.Now Walter India Private Limited is a wholly owned subsidiary of Wall-Mart Stores Inc. Walter India owns and operates 20 Best Price Modern Wholesale stores in 8 states across India. Division of wall-mart: Neighborhood Markets (groceries) Cam's Club (membership) Discount stores (FMC & apparels) Wall-Mart superstructures (groceries) THE PROBLEMS FACED BY WALL-MART Late entry Overlook competitors Destroy small businesses Joint venture & Nationalism Culture difference Suppliers Government Regulations The problem which is looked at In this research project is government regulation.The statement of the problem- The problem which Is looked at In this research project Is the government for retail global companies makes it difficult to make any development in India so Wall-Mart wants to launch e-commerce. Objective of the study- it is to see how Wall-Mart will make a difference in the economy by online purchases. To see how the Indian market responds to e-commerce and wil l it help in increasing sales of the company. What will India do for Wall-Mart?Wall-Mart needs India, and it needs success in India. At the same moment as the Joint venture in India was announced this weekend, Wall-Mart announced something stunning about its November financial performance. In the US, in stores that have been open at least a year, sales actually fell compared to last year. Same-store US sales fell Just 0. 1% – the decline comes to about $mm. It wouldn't have been a decline at all if each US store had sold Just $1 ,250 a week in additional merchandise.The performance is chilling because it's only the second time in 25 years that Wall- Mart's same-store sales haven't grown. The truth is that while the US still accounts for more than 70% of Wall-Mart's sales, the country is full up with Wall-Marts: 53% of Americans already live within five miles of a Wall-Mart, and 90% live within 15 miles. If an American wants to shop at Wall-Mart, he or she already is. So if Wa ll-Mart is going to continue to grow, it must tap new and receptive markets like India. What will Wall- Mart do to India?The mood about Wall-Mart in the United States is conflicted, at best. For two years, there has been a noisy national debate about Wall-Mart's impact – low prices, yes, but also low wages, poor working conditions, small merchants swept away, manufacturers squeezed. In the recent Congressional elections, prominent Democrat politicians routinely attacked Wall-Mart, despite the fact that millions of Democrat voters shop there every week. In developing nations, in contrast, the arrival of Wall- Mart stores is still greeted with gratitude.But will Wall-Mart bring with it to India exactly the kind of business practices that cause resistance to it in the US? Indian's retail market is likely to be transformed over the next 10 years, and Wall-Mart is determined to be part of that. When a superstore opens that can do $1 m or $mm in business a week, it's going to vacuu m sales away from small merchants. Yes, Wall- Marts, and all hyper marts, create hundreds of Jobs. But there is a big difference between being a shopkeeper, and working in a store for mega-corporation.But at this Indian's elected officials want to understand what happens when Wall-Mart arrives, hey need only consult local officials in China or Mexico or Missouri. And if Indian officials want to both usher in a new consumer era, and preserve some of the traditional aspects of Indian commerce, they need to act now – with zoning laws, with rules on the size of stores and the hours they may be open – before the hyper marts roll in. Once they dot the landscape, as we've discovered in the US, it's too late to do anything but mourn the traditional ways of shopping.SECONDARY RESEARCH FINDINGS Wall-Mart will open 50 cash-and carry-stores in the country in the next 4-5 years, a eve that will strengthen the presence of the retail major in the wholesale segment. The announcement c omes a day after the Bops manifesto declared that the party will not allow foreign direct investment (FAD) in the multi-brand retail segment if it forms the next government. The BGP, in its manifesto unveiled Monday, said that it is not in favor of FAD in the multi-brand retail sector, though it was open to FAD in all other sectors if it led to Job and asset creation.However, the company has refrained from entering the sector, citing stringent conditions related to mandatory 30 per cent local rouging. Given that 100 per cent FAD is allowed in the cash and carry segment, this sector presents an opportunity to the company to make in-roads in the vast Indian market. In a statement, Walter also said that it will launch business-to-business (BIB) e-commerce platform for members of its cash and carry ‘Best Price Modern Wholesale Stores'. â€Å"Walter is committed to India and we are excited about our growth plans.We will continue to focus on the cash and carry format as we are very happy with the way it has shaped up in the last few years. The format is also poised o grow in India and we would like to serve the growing customer base by opening 50 new cash and carry stores over the next four-five years and extend the e-commerce platform to our cash and carry members with a virtual shopping opportunity,† Scott Price, president and CEO, Walter Asia, said, in the statement. The retailer currently has 20 Best Price Modern Wholesale Stores in the country.The first store opened in Marital in May 2009. Currently, 100 per cent FAD is allowed in single brand retail, and 51 per cent is allowed in the multi-brand retail sector. Also, 100 per cent FAD is allowed in BIB e-commerce, but not in BBC e-commerce. Price also said that the company will take â€Å"a number of important steps to strengthen compliance so that we do the right thing everyday'. â€Å"We are evaluating and reinforcing procedures and programs relating to all compliance areas†¦ And responsibl e sourcing among others,† Price added.PEST ANALYSIS Strong opposition to FAD in Indian's retail sector Taxation police – VAT Low access to banking facilities Economic analysis: GAP growth Foreign investments Money supply Inflation Social analysis: Corporate social responsibility Environmental safety Ease of shopping Technological analysis: Retail media network ERP system Online shopping CRM system CONSUMER ANALYSIS What will Wall-Mart do for Indian consumers? Wall-Mart will be a sensation in India – as it has been in China and in Mexico.At the moment, there is Just a single hyper mart in the whole country, in Iambi. Indian's rapidly growing middle class has more money to spend than any previous generation – but no place to spend it. Just 7% of retail spending in the country is in what westerners would consider â€Å"organized† retail stores. Even in China, that number is 20%. So Wall-Mart's acres of low-cost merchandise from around the world, gather ed under a single roof, will be like a carnival for a slice of Indian consumers.Wall-Mart store openings in developing nations are frequently huge events – tens of thousands of Chinese show up when new stores open there – and with good reason. People everywhere are grateful to have the products of the world delivered to their doorstep at affordable prices. Competitors are competitors within an industry. Competition in the industry can be weak with few competitors that don't compete very aggressively or it can be intense tit many competitors fighting in a cut-throat environment.Key competitors of Walter in the retail sectors are: VA Barilla Group- It has a strong presence in apparel retail and owns renowned brands like Allen Solely, Louis Phillips, Trouser Town, Van Houses and Peter England. The company has started to expand aggressively to compete with other players. Trend- It is subsidiary of the Data group, operates lifestyle retail chain, book and music chain consum er electronics chain etc. Landmark Group K Rajah Crop Group Reliance Pantaloon Others stores are: Big bazaar Spencer Careful & metro are the main wholesale cash-and-carry brands. Market research The company/brand selected for the research proposal project Is Wall-Mart. INTRODUCTION Wall-Mart Stores, Inc. , branded as Wall-Mart, Is an American multinational retail corporation that runs chains of large discount department stores and warehouse stores. Headquartered In Bonneville, Arkansas, the company was founded by Sam Walton in 1962 and incorporated on October 31, 1969. It has over 11,000 stores in 27 countries, under a total 55 different names. It operates in India as Best Price.The company is the world's largest public corporation, the biggest private employer in the oral with over two million employees and the largest retailer in the world. Wall-Mart is a family-owned business, as the company Is controlled by the Walton family, who own over 50 percent of Wall-Mart through their holding company, Walton Enterprises. It is also one of the world's most valuable companies and is also the largest grocery retailer in the US. The partnership between Birth Enterprises and Wall-Mart has been dissolved.Now Walter India Private Limited is a wholly owned subsidiary of Wall-Mart Stores Inc. Walter India owns and operates 20 Best Price Modern Wholesale stores in 8 states across India. Division of wall-mart: Neighborhood Markets (groceries) Cam's Club (membership) Discount stores (FMC & apparels) Wall-Mart superstructures (groceries) THE PROBLEMS FACED BY WALL-MART Late entry Overlook competitors Destroy small businesses Joint venture & Nationalism Culture difference Suppliers Government Regulations The problem which is looked at In this research project is government regulation.The statement of the problem- The problem which Is looked at In this research project Is the government for retail global companies makes it difficult to make any development in India so Wall-Mart wants to launch e-commerce. Objective of the study- it is to see how Wall-Mart will make a difference in the economy by online purchases. To see how the Indian market responds to e-commerce and wil l it help in increasing sales of the company. What will India do for Wall-Mart?Wall-Mart needs India, and it needs success in India. At the same moment as the Joint venture in India was announced this weekend, Wall-Mart announced something stunning about its November financial performance. In the US, in stores that have been open at least a year, sales actually fell compared to last year. Same-store US sales fell Just 0. 1% – the decline comes to about $mm. It wouldn't have been a decline at all if each US store had sold Just $1 ,250 a week in additional merchandise.The performance is chilling because it's only the second time in 25 years that Wall- Mart's same-store sales haven't grown. The truth is that while the US still accounts for more than 70% of Wall-Mart's sales, the country is full up with Wall-Marts: 53% of Americans already live within five miles of a Wall-Mart, and 90% live within 15 miles. If an American wants to shop at Wall-Mart, he or she already is. So if Wa ll-Mart is going to continue to grow, it must tap new and receptive markets like India. What will Wall- Mart do to India?The mood about Wall-Mart in the United States is conflicted, at best. For two years, there has been a noisy national debate about Wall-Mart's impact – low prices, yes, but also low wages, poor working conditions, small merchants swept away, manufacturers squeezed. In the recent Congressional elections, prominent Democrat politicians routinely attacked Wall-Mart, despite the fact that millions of Democrat voters shop there every week. In developing nations, in contrast, the arrival of Wall- Mart stores is still greeted with gratitude.But will Wall-Mart bring with it to India exactly the kind of business practices that cause resistance to it in the US? Indian's retail market is likely to be transformed over the next 10 years, and Wall-Mart is determined to be part of that. When a superstore opens that can do $1 m or $mm in business a week, it's going to vacuu m sales away from small merchants. Yes, Wall- Marts, and all hyper marts, create hundreds of Jobs. But there is a big difference between being a shopkeeper, and working in a store for mega-corporation.But at this Indian's elected officials want to understand what happens when Wall-Mart arrives, hey need only consult local officials in China or Mexico or Missouri. And if Indian officials want to both usher in a new consumer era, and preserve some of the traditional aspects of Indian commerce, they need to act now – with zoning laws, with rules on the size of stores and the hours they may be open – before the hyper marts roll in. Once they dot the landscape, as we've discovered in the US, it's too late to do anything but mourn the traditional ways of shopping.SECONDARY RESEARCH FINDINGS Wall-Mart will open 50 cash-and carry-stores in the country in the next 4-5 years, a eve that will strengthen the presence of the retail major in the wholesale segment. The announcement c omes a day after the Bops manifesto declared that the party will not allow foreign direct investment (FAD) in the multi-brand retail segment if it forms the next government. The BGP, in its manifesto unveiled Monday, said that it is not in favor of FAD in the multi-brand retail sector, though it was open to FAD in all other sectors if it led to Job and asset creation.However, the company has refrained from entering the sector, citing stringent conditions related to mandatory 30 per cent local rouging. Given that 100 per cent FAD is allowed in the cash and carry segment, this sector presents an opportunity to the company to make in-roads in the vast Indian market. In a statement, Walter also said that it will launch business-to-business (BIB) e-commerce platform for members of its cash and carry ‘Best Price Modern Wholesale Stores'. â€Å"Walter is committed to India and we are excited about our growth plans.We will continue to focus on the cash and carry format as we are very happy with the way it has shaped up in the last few years. The format is also poised o grow in India and we would like to serve the growing customer base by opening 50 new cash and carry stores over the next four-five years and extend the e-commerce platform to our cash and carry members with a virtual shopping opportunity,† Scott Price, president and CEO, Walter Asia, said, in the statement. The retailer currently has 20 Best Price Modern Wholesale Stores in the country.The first store opened in Marital in May 2009. Currently, 100 per cent FAD is allowed in single brand retail, and 51 per cent is allowed in the multi-brand retail sector. Also, 100 per cent FAD is allowed in BIB e-commerce, but not in BBC e-commerce. Price also said that the company will take â€Å"a number of important steps to strengthen compliance so that we do the right thing everyday'. â€Å"We are evaluating and reinforcing procedures and programs relating to all compliance areas†¦ And responsibl e sourcing among others,† Price added.PEST ANALYSIS Strong opposition to FAD in Indian's retail sector Taxation police – VAT Low access to banking facilities Economic analysis: GAP growth Foreign investments Money supply Inflation Social analysis: Corporate social responsibility Environmental safety Ease of shopping Technological analysis: Retail media network ERP system Online shopping CRM system CONSUMER ANALYSIS What will Wall-Mart do for Indian consumers? Wall-Mart will be a sensation in India – as it has been in China and in Mexico.At the moment, there is Just a single hyper mart in the whole country, in Iambi. Indian's rapidly growing middle class has more money to spend than any previous generation – but no place to spend it. Just 7% of retail spending in the country is in what westerners would consider â€Å"organized† retail stores. Even in China, that number is 20%. So Wall-Mart's acres of low-cost merchandise from around the world, gather ed under a single roof, will be like a carnival for a slice of Indian consumers.Wall-Mart store openings in developing nations are frequently huge events – tens of thousands of Chinese show up when new stores open there – and with good reason. People everywhere are grateful to have the products of the world delivered to their doorstep at affordable prices. Competitors are competitors within an industry. Competition in the industry can be weak with few competitors that don't compete very aggressively or it can be intense tit many competitors fighting in a cut-throat environment.Key competitors of Walter in the retail sectors are: VA Barilla Group- It has a strong presence in apparel retail and owns renowned brands like Allen Solely, Louis Phillips, Trouser Town, Van Houses and Peter England. The company has started to expand aggressively to compete with other players. Trend- It is subsidiary of the Data group, operates lifestyle retail chain, book and music chain consum er electronics chain etc. Landmark Group K Rajah Crop Group Reliance Pantaloon Others stores are: Big bazaar Spencer Careful & metro are the main wholesale cash-and-carry brands.