Gogol’s Namesake Essay

Immigrants moving to the United States are faced with the pressing question of whether or not to assimilate into American culture. Many of those involved in diasporic situations feel that adapting to the social norms of their new surroundings is an act of betraying their roots in which their heritage and all preexisting traditions will be lost. Jhumpa Lahiri’s novel The Namesake highlights this struggle through the eyes of the Ganguli family. The novel ultimately shows us that one can simultaneously belong to two cultures, in this case Indian and American culture. Many scholars are hung up on the fact that protagonist Gogol must belong to one culture or the other. Heinze’s â€Å"Diasporic Overcoat?† suggests that Gogol puts on an â€Å"overcoat† through the switching of his name to represent the switching of his identity across various relationships and social situations. In doing so, he says â€Å"by implication one is never totally free of an overcoat, there is no such thing as a pristine and authentic identity†¦ (Heinze 197-198)† This quote demonstrates Heinze taking a stand and stating that there is no fixed identity. I suggest that Gogol does indeed obtain a national and cultural identity. The characterization of Gogol’s identity can be viewed as a spectrum that is continuously changing. At one end of the spectrum is his Indian cultural identity and the other is his American. At different points in his life Gogol has different degrees of American and Indian cultures present within him. So rather than arguing Gogol has no set identity, instead his identity is classified by his movement along his hybrid cultural spectrum. Other scholars that write on the issues of cultural hybridity focus on the idea that the person involved in diasporic situations are caught some where between their two given cultures. The author of an article applying concepts of cultural hybridity in music, particularly Arabian Jazz states that those with hybrid identities create a new â€Å"imagined community’ in which cultures may interact and influence each other in a state of co-existence and a â€Å"third space† is created. He defines this third space as â€Å"the inter- the cutting edge of translation and negotiation, the in between space that carries the burden of the meaning of culture† (Al-Joulan 640). Rather than being part of one culture or the other he is saying that identity of ones culture is defined as being in this third space. For the sake of my argument Gogol’s third space is the area on between his Indian culture and American culture. Gogol’s position in his third space changes at  different points in the novel. Gogol’s birth not only marks the start of his life but it also marks the start of his movement away from the Indian side of his hybrid cultural spectrum. Although it is clear the presented naming process for the Ganguli baby is one that typically appeals to Bengali tradition, American pressures results in the vanishing of those traditions. â€Å"Ashima’s grandmother has mailed the letter herself, walking with her cane to the post office, her first trip out of the house in a decade. The letter contains one name for a girl, one for a boy. Ashima’s grandmother has revealed them to no one.† (25) This quote indicates the importance of naming in Bengali tradition, particularly done by an elder in the family. The fact that the grandmother is leaving the house for the first time in ten years to personally see the letter off shows it is of great importance. However, when the letter does not arrive in time, his parents fail to name him according to Bengali tradition. â€Å"For they learn that in America, a baby cannot be released from the hospital without a birth certificate. And that a birth certificate needs a name.† (27) The Ganguli’s must abide to American laws even if it means abandoning essential Bengali traditions and we see young Gogol’s position on the spectrum of two cultures sway away from his â€Å"Indian-ness.† Perhaps this is Lahiri’s way of communicating to her audience that sacrifices must be made in order to establish a hybrid cultural identity. During the infancy stage of Gogol’s life another series of events instills his divergence from the Indian side of his identity spectrum. The Ganguli’s invite their Bengali friends over in celebration of Gogol’s first consumption of solid food. Gogol is also offered a number of items to represent what profession he will grow to attain. â€Å"Gogol frowns, and his lower lip trembles. Only then, forced at six months to confront his destiny, does he begin to cry.† (40) This quote demonstrates how Gogol’s refusal to participate in traditional Indian rituals, begins at an early age. He does not reach for any of the items symbolizing his rejection of Indian culture ultimately pushing him further towards American assimilation. Throughout adolescence and early adulthood Gogol’s movement along the spectrum continues away from the Indian side. During this stage in his life the movement is represented through the rejection of his name to mimic his rejection of his Bengali heritage. Despite the fact that the pet name given  to him at birth is in fact a Russian name, the concept of having a pet name and good name all together is the â€Å"Bengali way† and not typical for Americans. We see this in Gogol’s petition to his parents to change his name when he asks â€Å"Why do I have a pet name in the first place? I don’t get it†(Lahiri 99). His mother responds simply with â€Å"It’s our way, Gogol. It’s what Bengali’s do†(Lahiri 99). When Gogol is asked by his new college suitemate whether Gogol is his first name or last name, he gives a new answer that is of great significance. â€Å"Normally that question agitates him. But today he has a new answer. ‘Actually, that’s my middle name,’ Gogol says by way of explanation, sitting with them in the common room to their suite. ‘Nikhil is my first name. It got left out for some reason’†(Lahiri 103). We know this statement is false due to the fact that in a previous passage of the novel Gogol’s mother explains to his principle that he does not have a middle name at all, he has a good name and a pet name. In Judith Caesar’s article about Gogol’s namesake she says, â€Å"Although Nikhil is an Indian name, it enables him to try on a sophisticated identity he thinks he wants, sexy, cool, ‘normal’†(Caesar 110). I believe what Caesar is referring to as â€Å"normal† is in fact â€Å"more American†. Making the claim that Gogol is his middle name marks his attempt at appearing like a typical American kid with a first, middle, and last name. In essence he is rejecting his pet name to represent the rejection of his Indian heritage. Conversely the acceptance of this so-called â€Å"middle name† represents his acceptance of American culture continuing his movement away from the Indian side of the spectrum. It is not until the adulthood stage in Gogol’s life that he comes full circle and begins his movement in the other direction, back towards the Indian side of his hybrid cultural identity spectrum. The first way in which he does this is through the development of his relationship with Moushumi. Moushumi, being a childhood family friend also of Bengali heritage, first met Gogol as Gogol rather than Nikhil. It is â€Å"the first time he’s been out with a women who’s once known him by that other name†(Lahiri 193). The fact that Gogol goes through with meeting a girl who already knew his pet name, a Bengali custom, represents a step towards accepting his name and a willingness to begin his movement in the other direction towards his â€Å"Indian-ness.† Ironically the very thing they bond over is their identical  hybrid identity situation. â€Å"They talk about how they are both routinely assumed to be Greek, Egyptian, Mexican – even in this misrendering they are joined† (Lahiri 212). Neither Gogol nor Moushumi ever thought they would date another Bengali due to the fact that it is what their parents had continuously drilled into their heads as their wishes. They know that their blossoming relationship will please both their parents, and they each find some comfort in this surprising thought. The reason the two met up after not seeing each other since childhood was a result of a request by Gogol’s mother. She is the one who suggest he call Moushumi. Gogol proceeding with the call and arranging to meet Moushumi marks the start to his movement and reconnection to his Indian culture. The second way Gogol begins his journey of moving back towards the Indian side, is through his exploration and acceptance of what his pet name meant to his father. In the final chapter of the novel we see adult Gogol returning to his family home in which he goes into his old bedroom, discovering the book by author Nikolai Gogol that his father had given to him years ago. He opens the book to find what his father had written in it â€Å"For Gogol Ganguli†¦ the man who gave you his name, from the man who gave you your name†(Lahiri 288). It is only out of respect for his father that he takes the time to explore what the name meant to him. Had Gogol’s father not have passed away, he may have again snubbed the book and its significance to his father as he did when he first gifted it to him. This may be Lahiri’s way of conveying to readers that although it is too little to late in the aspect of reestablishing a relationship with his father, it is not yet too late to reconnect with his Bengali heritage. The moment Gogol begins to read â€Å"The Overcoat† marks just the beginning of his exploration and acceptance of his Bengali heritage and finding its role in the grand scheme of his double-sided identity spectrum. In conclusion we see different degrees of Indian and American culture present within Gogol representing his continuous changing position across his hybrid culture identity or â€Å"third space†. In the early stages of his life we see his divergence from â€Å"Indian-ness† through his parents failure to name him according to Bengali tradition, his own rejection of important  Bengali ceremonial traditions and the rejection of his pet name. Finally in adulthood he begins his journey in the other direction, his journey at exploring at reconnecting with this Indian roots marking the start of his movement back towards â€Å"Indian-ness.† This movement is achieved through his developing relationship with Moushumi, another Bengali-American character, as well as his acceptance to explore the meaning of his name given to him by his father. Works Cited Al-joulan, Nayef. â€Å"Diana Abu-Jaber’s Arabian Jazz: An Orphic Vision of Hybrid Cultural Identity.† Neophilologus 94.4 (2010): 637-52. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 11 Dec. 2012. Heinze, Ruediger. â€Å"A Diasporic Overcoat? Naming and Affection in Jhumpa Lahiri’s the Namesake.† Journal of Postcolonial Writing 43.2 (2007): 191-202. MLA International Bibliography. Web. 11 Dec. 2012. Caesar, Judith. â€Å"Gogol’s Namesake: Identity and Relationships in Jhumpa Lahiri’s the Namesake.† Atenea 27.1 (2007): 103-19. MLA International Bibliography. Web. 11 Dec. 2012.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL EXAMINATIONS GCE Advanced Subsidiary and Advanced Level MARK SCHEME for the November 2005 question paper 9708 ECONOMICS 9708/04 Paper 4, maximum raw mark 70 This mark scheme is published as an aid to teachers and students, to indicate the requirements of the examination. It shows the basis on which Examiners were initially instructed to award marks. It does not indicate the details of the discussions that took place at an Examiners’ meeting before marking began. Any substantial changes to the mark scheme that arose from these discussions will be recorded in the published Report on the Examination. All Examiners are instructed that alternative correct answers and unexpected approaches in candidates’ scripts must be given marks that fairly reflect the relevant knowledge and skills demonstrated. Mark schemes must be read in conjunction with the question papers and the Report on the Examination. The minimum marks in these components needed for various grades were previously published with these mark schemes, but are now instead included in the Report on the Examination for this session. †¢ CIE will not enter into discussion or correspondence in connection with these mark schemes. CIE is publishing the mark schemes for the November 2005 question papers for most IGCSE and GCE Advanced Level and Advanced Subsidiary Level syllabuses and some Ordinary Level syllabuses. Page 1 Mark Scheme GCE AS/A LEVEL – NOVEMBER 2005 Syllabus 9708 Paper 4 Section A 1 (a) What evidence is there in the article that the UK mobile phone companies operate in an imperfect market structure? Only four companies, can fix price, have product differentiation in the handsets, no perfect knowledge. (b) Explain the statement ‘one result will be that cross-subsidisation will disappear and the price of a new handset will go up considerably. Explanation of meaning of subsidising one product or service by the profits on another which itself may be overpriced. The removal of the subsidy will result in the price of the subsidised product increasing if profit levels are to be maintained. Often the subsidised product makes a loss but is produced because it is supplementary to other profit making products or services. (c) The article says the decision of the High Court will cost the companies ? 1. 5 billion to ? 2 billion. Explain how the phone companies might react in order to retain their profit levels. Could try to reduce labour costs, implement some redundancies, could stop research and development, could generally try to reduce costs or could try to increase revenue by promoting products through advertising. (d) Explain with the aid of a diagram how the existence of termination charges would affect consumer surplus. Termination charges are placed above the market level. Diagram should show a price above market clearing which will result in reduction in consumer surplus. 1 mark for D/S diagram correctly labelled; 1 for showing the reduced area of consumer surplus; 1 for explanation. e) Does the information lead you to agree with the spokesperson when he said that consumers should not necessarily regard the decision as a good thing? In consumers’ interest: they would save ? 700 but over next three years, price reduction would be on all calls. Against consumers’ interest: cost of telephone handset would rise; there is a fear of increased calls for text messages; possib ility of phone company finding some other way to keep profits high. [6] [4] [4] [3] [4]  © University of Cambridge International Examinations 2005 Page 2 Mark Scheme GCE AS/A LEVEL – NOVEMBER 2005 Syllabus 9708 Paper 4 General comments for Section B The essay questions carry a maximum mark of 25. Try not to ‘bunch' marks, but use the whole mark range. If there is any doubt in your mind, give the benefit of doubt to the candidate. The difference in grades should be assessed on the ability of the candidate to demonstrate the various objectives of the examination listed in the syllabus and not purely on the ability to itemise further facts from the content of the syllabus. Marks should be awarded for the ability to demonstrate that aim (b) of the syllabus has been achieved as well as aim (a) – which refers to content knowledge. It is the objective of the examination, as listed in the syllabus, to assess both these aims. An overall guide for marks for individual questions is given below; these are from a total of 25. They may be applied proportionally of course to parts of questions where the total is less than 25: Mark 1 – 9 (Linked to level one in individual question notes). 1-5 where the answer is mostly irrelevant and only contains a few valid points made incidentally in an irrelevant context. There will also be substantial omissions of analysis. here the answer shows some knowledge but does not indicate that the meaning of the question has been properly grasped. Basic errors of theory or an inadequate development of analysis may be evident. 6–9 Mark 10 – 13 (Linked to level two in individual question notes). 10 –11 where there is evidence of an ability to identify facts or some ability at graphs and/or a fair ability to apply known laws to new situations. There should be an a ccurate although undeveloped explanation of the facts relating to the question together with an explanation of the theory, and evidence of some bility to discriminate and form elementary judgements. Do not expect a clear logical presentation. There will not be much evidence of the ability to recognise unstated assumptions, nor to examine the implications of a hypothesis, nor of the ability to organise ideas into a new unity. 12 – 13 where the answer has a more thorough relevance to the question but where the theory is incompletely explained.  © University of Cambridge International Examinations 2005 Page 3 Mark Scheme GCE AS/A LEVEL – NOVEMBER 2005 Syllabus 9708 Paper 4 14 – 17 (Linked to level 3 in individual question notes). 4 –15 where there is a good knowledge of the facts and theory of the question, clear evidence of the ability to use the facts and theory with accurate reference to the question that may have presented the candidate with a novel ap plication. There should also be evidence, where appropriate, of the ability to examine the implications of the question and an attempt to distinguish between facts and value judgements. Clear statements, supported by reasoned arguments should be given and there should be some attempt at a conclusion to the question. There should be a reasoned structure to the whole answer. Do not expect too many extra Illustrative points which are not explicitly referred to in the question, do not expect too much critical comment on unstated assumptions 16 – 17 for an answer showing a well reasoned understanding of the question's requirements and of the relevant theory: the analysis should be sound though the illustration and development may not be very full. 18 – 25 (Linked to level 4 in individual question notes). 18 –20 where there is a thorough knowledge of the facts and theory with an excellent ability to describe, explain or analyse this in a precise, logical, reasoned manner. There should be an ability to query some of the assumptions in the question and clear evidence of an ability to distinguish between fact and value judgements and to draw some conclusions on the matter being discussed. Conclusions should be formed and expressed within a sound structured answer so that the whole is well presented. New illustrations and apposite examples should be introduced as further evidence of an ability to recognise the principles of the question and their application to relevant current situations. 1 – 25 for an answer which, given the time constraint, could not be improved significantly: it will have clear analysis, ample illustration and a good attempt at considered evaluation. Be positive in your marking, awarding marks for what is there without being too much influenced by omissions. Marks should not be deleted for inaccuracies. Corresponding marks for sub-sections. Total Mark 10 Total Mark 12 Total Mark 13 Total Mark 15 1 1-3 1-4 1-4+ 1-5 2 4-5 5-6 5-6 + 6-8 3 6-7 7-8 7-8+ 9-11 4 8-10 9-12 9-13 12-15  © University of Cambridge International Examinations 2005 Page 4 Mark Scheme GCE AS/A LEVEL – NOVEMBER 2005 Syllabus 9708 Paper 4 Section B 2 (a) Explain what is meant by efficient resource allocation in a free market. L4 L3 L2 L1 (b) For a sound explanation with clear understanding of the principles involved in the analysis. [8 – 10] For a competent explanation but with limited development of the analysis. [6 – 7] For a correct explanation of a free market but undeveloped explanation of allocative efficiency. [4 – 5] For an answer which has some basic correct facts but includes irrelevancies. Errors of theory or omissions of analysis will be substantial. 1 – 3] [10] Would you agree that in some circumstances it is best to accept the decision such as that of the French government and abandon the search for economic efficiency through the free market? [15] Discussion of the reason for market failure. Monopolies, merit goods, public goods. Consideration of whether this might apply in the case of the large engineeri ng company. L4 L3 L2 L1 For a reasoned discussion of causes of market failure and clearly structured answer. [12 – 15]. For a fair explanation of market failure but lack of development and reasoned conclusion. 9 – 11] For a limited but acceptable attempt to consider some market failures. [6 – 8] For an answer which has some basic correct facts but includes irrelevancies. Errors of theory or omissions of analysis will be substantial. [1 – 5] 3 (a) Explain how trade unions can be incorporated into the economic analysis of wage determination. [12] Candidates are asked to comment on trade unions so the economic theory of wages that they should use is that for an imperfect market. This theory should be explained using marginal revenue productivity. Trade unions can have an effect on the supply curve which is now no longer solely determined by market forces. Where the actual wage will be determined depends upon the relative strengths of the employer and the trade union. L4 L3 L2 L1 For a sound discussion with good explanation of the analysis and a clear understanding of the principles involved. [9 – 12] [7 – 8 D and S approach] For a competent comment but with limited elaboration of the analysis. [7 – 8] [5-6 D and S approach] For a correct explanation of part of the analysis. Candidates might explain either the government or the unions. 5 – 6] [3+ – 4 D and S approach] For an answer which has some basic correct facts but includes irrelevancies. Errors of theory or omissions of analysis will be substantial. [1 – 4] [1 –3 D and S approach]  © University of Cambridge International Examinations 2005 Page 5 Mark Scheme GCE AS/A LEVEL – NOVEMBER 2005 Syllabus 9708 Paper 4 (b) Discuss the possible effects that trade unions might have on the economy of a country. [13] Trade unions could affect the supply of labour and working practices. They could cause production to decrease with consequent downward effects on income, spending and national income. Candidates could explain this using the multiplier concept. Union could, however, through negotiation prevent disruption of production, or could monitor the implementation of safety procedures which might involve extra spending by the employer. This might well have an upward effect on national income. L4 L3 L2 L1 For a reasoned and clear explanation with accurate development of theory contrasting possible outcomes. [9 – 13] For a clear but undeveloped explanation which concentrates on change of income in one direction only. 7 – 8] For a limited attempt to consider the theory and with a greater concentration on the descriptive elements. [5 – 6] For an answer which has some basic correct facts but includes irrelevancies. Errors of theory or omissions of analysis are substantial. [1 – 4] 4 (a) With the help of diagrams distinguish between normal profit and abnormal profit. [10] Diagrams to show normal and abnormal profit with accompanying explanation of the c urves used in the diagram. Candidates can distinguish between perfect and imperfect markets. L4 L3 L2 L1 For a sound explanation, good diagrams correctly labelled, with clear understanding of the principles involved in the analysis. [8 – 10] For a competent explanation but with limited development of the analysis. Diagrams clear but not fully labelled. [6 – 7] For a correct explanation of terms but some poor diagrams. [4 – 5] For an answer which has some basic correct facts but includes irrelevancies. Errors of theory or omissions of analysis will be substantial. [1 – 3] (b) Discuss whether firms always want to maximise profits and are able to do so in the way suggested by economic theory. 15] Discussion of the theory of profit maximisation. Candidates should consider not only whether it is possible to calculate marginal revenue and marginal cost to achieve profit maximisation but also whether the firm might have alternative aims. Sales maximisation, behavioural, managerial, satisficing, market share aims might be mentioned. L4 L3 L2 L1 For a reas oned discussion and clearly structured answer. [12 – 15] For a fair discussion but undeveloped answer mentioning either only one part of the question or both parts but only scant mention of alternative aims. 9 – 11] For a limited but acceptable attempt to consider the question with very limited development of either part. [6 – 8] For an answer which has some basic correct facts but includes irrelevancies. Errors of theory or omissions of analysis will be substantial. [1 – 5]  © University of Cambridge International Examinations 2005 Page 6 Mark Scheme GCE AS/A LEVEL – NOVEMBER 2005 Syllabus 9708 Paper 4 5 How far do you agree that low interest rates and low inflation are the most important aims of government policy in maximising economic welfare? 25] Discussion of the general macro aims of government policy with a comment on whether the two mentioned should be regarded as the most crucial. The effect of low interest rates and low inflation and po ssible links between them can be developed. Reasons should be given for either choosing or not choosing these aims as the most important. L4 L3 L2 L1 For a thorough explanation of the aims, a clear analysis of the link between them, a discussion of the possible outcome of a choosing either those aims or alternatives with a reasoned conclusion. 18 – 25] For a competent explanation of the aims but where there is only limited attempt to consider the significance of the importance of the aims. There will be some discussion but the evaluation will not be fully developed or extensive. [14 – 17] For an accurate though undeveloped explanation with some attempt at analysis but only limited evaluation. [10 – 13] For an answer which shows some knowledge but does not indicate that the question has been fully grasped. The answer will have some correct facts but include irrelevancies. Errors of theory or omissions of analysis will be substantial. 1 – 9] 6 With the appr oval of the Malaysian government, the Swedish company IKEA, the world’s largest retailer of home furnishings, has invested $106 million in Malaysia in the past three years. It plans to open another large store in the country, employing 450 people with expected sales of approximately $50 million in the first year. (Herald Tribune Aug 15 03 p 12) (a) Use the multiplier analysis to explain what effect this investment might have on the Malaysian national income. [10] Discussion of the effect of increasing investment in terms of employment, income, spending, saving. Multiplier analysis. Usually this question is asked with reference to government spending and investment but this is a large investment and it also will have multiplier effects. L4 L3 L2 L1 For a sound explanation of the analysis and a clear understanding of the principles involved. [8 – 10] For a competent comment but with limited elaboration of the analysis. [6 – 7] For a correct explanation of part of the analysis. Candidates might explain how investment might increase income but might not deal with further increases in as they do not discuss what leakages occur at each ‘round’. 4 – 5] For an answer which has some basic correct facts but includes irrelevancies. Errors of theory or omissions of analysis will be substantial. [1 – 3]  © University of Cambridge International Examinations 2005 Page 7 Mark Scheme GCE AS/A LEVEL – NOVEMBER 2005 Syllabus 9708 Paper 4 (b) Discuss whether the activities of multi-national companies are always beneficial. Candidates should discuss the effects of large companies. They could consider whether a large company is beneficial for the shareholders, the workforce and the consumer. These groups may be in different countries. They should comment on the effect in host country where wages/incomes/employment might increase and on the possible benefits for directors (and shareholders) who may be in the home country. The multi-national might have chosen to operate in the host country because of reduced costs or cheaper inputs so a comment on the possible benefits of comparative advantage would be pertinent. L4 L3 L2 L1 For a sound discussion with good explanation of the analysis and a clear understanding of the principles involved. Reasoned evaluative comments should be given. 12 – 15] For a competent comment but with only limited evaluation of the effects. [9 – 11] For a correct discussion of the analysis but with only very brief, or no evaluation. [6 – 8] For an answer which has some basic correct facts but includes irrelevancies. Errors of theory or omissions of analysis will be substantial. [1 – 5] [15] 7 ‘There are so many difficulties in measuring living standards that w e can never be sure that people in one country are better off than those in another country. ’ Comment upon this statement. [25] Candidates should consider each part of the statement. They should discuss whether there are many difficulties in measuring living standards and give reasons for their conclusion on this part of the question. They should then consider whether it is possible to compare one country with another and discuss what use national income statistics might be. They should form an overall conclusion. L4 L3 L2 L1 For a thorough explanation of the difficulties of measuring living standards, and a clear conclusion to the assertion followed by a consideration of the usefulness of using the statistics to make comparisons. [18 – 25] For a competent explanation of the difficulties but with a limited conclusion. There will be some consideration of comparison between countries but this will not be fully developed or extensive. [14 – 17] For an accurate though undeveloped explanation with some attempt at analysis but only limited evaluation. The conclusion will be weak. [10 – 13] For an answer which shows some knowledge but does not indicate that the question has been fully grasped. The answer will have some correct facts but include irrelevancies. Errors of theory or omissions of analysis will be substantial. [1 – 9]  © University of Cambridge International Examinations 2005

Earth Day Essay

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Corporate Governance and Ownership - Essay Example The analysis of this paper shows that globalization plays an important role in dissolving the existing corporate ownership and strengthening the corporate governance in these three countries. However, this analysis also shows that because of its strong inherence and utility derived from specific features of these three countries, the characteristics of ownership and corporate governance and its effects still remain in these countries. Finally, this paper also touches on the potential of other elements that effect on the corporate governance from different perspectives. II. Introduction Corporate ownership has been one of the biggest concerns of corporate governance for many years. Many previous research argues the prevalence of widely held corporations in the United States in which corporate ownership is dispersed among small shareholders1. Under such structures, the main concern of corporate governance is how to reduce the potential conflict between the interests of managers and sto ck holders, or so-called agency problems.2 However, as we look outside the United States, especially in countries with poor minority shareholder protections, even the largest firms often have controlling shareholders3. In those countries, the central agency problem is how to restrict the expropriation of minority shareholders by controlling shareholders through the improvement of minority protections4. Corporate ownership in Asia is also largely different from the U.S. Asian characteristics, as containing a high concentration of ownership comes from family, state and group ownership and low liquidity of shares5. Claessens investigated the separation of ownership and control in 2980 publicly traded companies in nine East Asian countries6 (Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, and Thailand). This study finds that in all countries, especially in Indonesia, Japan and Singapore, voting rights consequently exceed cash-flow rights through p yramid structures and cross-holding. It also finds that more than two-thirds of firms in these countries are controlled by a single shareholder7. It is not hard to anticipate that under this corporate structure, the conflict of interests between majority and minority shareholders cause adverse effect on the corporate governance. Several studies show that the concentrated ownership causes the low market valuation of firms and expropriation of minority shareholders in Asia8. This expropriation is more detrimental in a country with weaker legal systems9. Although differences between countries are significant, White Paper on Corporate Governance in Asia emphasized that the protection of minority shareholders rights was particularly critical in Asia10. Basically, there are three types of corporate ownership in Asia, which are family, state and group ownership. More than half of Asian corporations are family-owned. Hong Kong, China, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand show high degrees of f amily ownership. State control is significant in China and Singapore. In Japan and Korea, group companies are characterized by interlocking cross-holdings of equity. These characteristics of corporate structure, however, have gradually changed in the 21st century because of Asian economic growth and capital globalization. Corporate governance in Asia has been subjected to the reformation due to the criticism for its weakness after the Asian financial crisis. It seems that as the Asian market played a

Religion and Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Religion and Society - Essay Example Bureaucracy is the regularized procedure, and formal divisions of responsibility characterize its structure and set of rules and regulations to control activity in the government and large organizations.Bureaucratization of religion is seen in Middle East over past half-century. In Middle East three religious processes have grown together. Two things are seen in Middle East:1.Growth of fundamentalism that has received worldwide attention both by the international establishments and journalists. 2. Bureaucratization of religion and the state co-optation of religion. The bureaucratization of religion focuses on the chain of command of religious professionals and the state co-optation of religion focuses on their neutralization as political rivals. Fundamentalism, the bureaucratization of religion and state co-optation of religion has become intertwined in equally supportive as well as in hostile relations in Jordan. Bureaucratization of religion and politics is also seen in contemporar y Iran where there is due to emphasis on Shia radicalism, national character and revolution. In Iran, the relationship between politics and religion is because of historical context from the past time, and the role of religious leaders in the Iranian political movements and setup. It is said that the Iran has introduced radical sect of Islam for its national character of independence and for its historical culture and tradition to show itself as a great regional and world power. Shi'ism is an end product of the Iranian historical traditions of state, religion, and politics, and of its cultural contributions to the Islamic and world civilizations. Therefore, a remarkable continuity in Iran's past heritage of asserting her independence in the modern world of global transformation which is led by the superpowers of this modern world. Just like Zoroastrianism was of the ancient Sasanid Persia, Iran is the motherland of Shi'ism and Shi'ism is an integral part of Iran (Johnstone,2008). Another example for the Bureaucratized religion is Saudia Arabia.Although Saudi Arabia is thought to be the most religious among all Muslim countries, the question of who in the kingdom determines its central Islamic tract has been the subject of controversy since its foundation. The formation of Saudi Arabia in the early twentieth century involved the unique requirement of the Wahhabi da'wa in the service of the political aims of the Saudi family, Al Sa'ud. The regime has not been without its enemy, but for the most part the Al Sa'ud has been able to contain them. However, since the Gulf War, the social and economic problems that have inundated the country have led to the rise of a radical Islamic fundamentalist movement that has challenged Saudi Arabia's public role as the one Islamic country that has successfully combined culture, tradition and modernity (Wilson, 1986). Religiosity is a term used in sociology that refers to many faces of religious activity, belief and dedication. Religiosity refers more with how religious a person is, and less with how a person is religious in terms of practicing certain rituals, telling the myths, knowing some specific symbols, or accepting certain doctrines about his/her duites and life hereafter. Most of the debates in the study of religion have grappled over conceptualization issues that are really measurement issues. Much had been written in press in the 1960s and 1970s for the typology of the church-sect. Following that period people have seen similar disagreements about secularization which depend heavily on how one decides to measure the concept. Now we argue on what leads to a strict church (Hill & Hood,1999). Life would be more simpler if we could all use the same set of conceptual measures, apply them consistently, and be able to compare our findings systematically (Harvey Whitehouse,2000). Emile Durkheim(1858-1917) is considered to be the father of sociology. He is recognized for making sociology a science, and making it part of the French academic

In What Ways Are an Organisations Employment Relations Influenced by Essay

In What Ways Are an Organisations Employment Relations Influenced by External Factors - Essay Example It is important to understand in detail how this commitment comes into maturity in the business world. According to Daniels (2006), organisation and its employees should together have one common understanding of their corporate goals and such can be enhanced further by employees’ success or failures and their existing relationship. In short, a good relationship existing between employees and the organisation is a good indicator of corporate success. Thus, an organisation’s ultimate goal is to enhance relationship with its employees or workforce. PESTLE Analysis Political Holman et al. (2005) argued that political processes are highly involved in the employee and management relationship considering that the modern design of working processes involves the modern consideration of conflicting interests between the employee and management. This may complement with the idea of Byton and Turnbull (2004) that there is no common interest between the interdependence of corporate world and the employees. One important implication of this in the real world is the continuing existence of boundaries between employees and the organisation. This boundary is without question being instituted by the differences that lead to conflicting interest among employees and the organisation. The idea of Holman et al (2005) and Byton and Turnbull only suggests that in reality there is conflict of interest between the employee and management and this boils down to the politics involved inside and outside of the corporate world. This means therefore that it is not only at the inside part of the corporate realm there is specific influence when it comes to employment relations but even at the... This report stresses that the current environmental concern is an important issue in employment relations. For instance, many companies which substantially in line with protecting the environment especially on the issue of global warming have substantially equip their employees with basic understanding about the issue. Such is a certain level of employee management that leads to actual employee and management relationship. It is in line with the strengthening of this aspect that will essentially lead to effective implementation of corporate goals. Thus, based on environmental concerns, a car manufacturing company will absolutely increase the understanding of its personnel on the probable issues in line with the environment. After all, the economic activities nowadays are interrelated with the environmental concerns. A the author says there are different attachments that characterise employment relationship such as employee commitment to organisation’s values and acknowledgemen t of both instrumental and calculative motives. This paper makes a concluison that it is clear that employment relation does not originate within the context between the corporate world and employees. In reality, the business environment is an external source of the existing trend in employment relations. In particular, the political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental aspects have corresponding impacts in the business world and the concerned employment relations between the employees and management.